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Polo Match Why Are There Very Few Human Images or Animals in Middle Eastern Religious Art?

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Avoidance of images of sentient beings in some forms of Islamic art

Aniconism is the avoidance of images of sentient beings in some forms of Islamic art. Islamic aniconism stems in function from the prohibition of idolatry and in part from the belief that the cosmos of living forms is God'south prerogative. Although the Quran does not explicitly prohibit visual representation of any living being, it uses the discussion musawwir (maker of forms, artist) as an epithet of God. The corpus of hadith (sayings attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad) contains more explicit prohibitions of images of living beings, challenging painters to "breathe life" into their images and threatening them with punishment on the Twenty-four hours of Judgment.[one] [ii] Muslims accept interpreted these prohibitions in unlike means in different times and places. Religious Islamic art has been typically characterized past the absence of figures and extensive apply of calligraphic, geometric and abstract floral patterns.

Notwithstanding, representations of Muhammad (in some cases, with his face curtained) and other religious figures are found in some manuscripts from lands to the east of Anatolia, such as Persia and India. These pictures were meant to illustrate the story and not to infringe on the Islamic prohibition of idolatry, just many Muslims regard such images equally forbidden.[one] In secular fine art of the Muslim earth, representations of human and animal forms historically flourished in nearly all Islamic cultures, although, partly because of opposing religious sentiments, figures in paintings were often stylized, giving rise to a diversity of decorative figural designs. In that location were episodes of iconoclastic destruction of figurative fine art, such as the decree by the Umayyad caliph Yazid 2 in 721 CE ordering the destruction of all representational images in his realm.[2] [iii] A number of historians accept seen an Islamic influence on the Byzantine iconoclastic movement of the eighth century, though others regard this is equally a fable that arose in later times in the Byzantine empire.[4]

Theological views [edit]

The Quran, the Islamic holy book, does not explicitly prohibit the depiction of human being figures; it merely condemns idolatry.[5] [vi] Interdictions of figurative representation are present in the hadith, among a dozen of the hadith recorded during the latter part of the menses when they were being written down. Because these hadith are tied to item events in the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, they demand to be interpreted in order to be applied in whatsoever full general fashion.

Sunni exegetes of tafsir, from the 9th century onward, increasingly saw in them categorical prohibitions against producing and using any representation of living beings. At that place are variations between religious madhhab (schools) and marked differences betwixt unlike branches of Islam. Aniconism is common among fundamentalist Sunni sects such as Salafis and Wahhabis (which are also frequently iconoclastic), and less prevalent amid liberal movements within Islam. Shia and mystical orders besides have less stringent views on aniconism. On the private level, whether or not specific Muslims believe in aniconism may depend on how much credence is given to hadith, and how liberal or strict they are in personal practice.

Aniconism in Islam not but deals with the cloth image, but touches upon mental representations also. It is a problematic issue, discussed by early theologians, equally to how to describe God, Muhammad and other prophets, and, indeed, if it is permissible at all to practise so. God is usually represented by immaterial attributes, such as "holy" or "merciful", commonly known from His "Ninety-ix cute names". Muhammad's concrete appearance, notwithstanding, is amply described, particularly in the traditions on his life and deeds recorded in the biographies known equally Sirah Rasul Allah. Of no less interest is the validity of sightings of holy personages fabricated during dreams.

Titus Burckhardt sums upwardly the function of aniconism in Islamic aesthetics as follows:

The absence of icons in Islam has not but a negative but a positive role. Past excluding all anthropomorphic images, at least within the religious realm, Islamic art aids man to be entirely himself. Instead of projecting his soul outside himself, he can remain in his ontological centre where he is both the viceregent (khalîfa) and slave ('abd) of God. Islamic art as a whole aims at creating an ambience which helps man to realize his primordial dignity; it therefore avoids everything that could be an 'idol', even in a relative and provisional manner. Naught must stand between man and the invisible presence of God. Thus Islamic art creates a void; it eliminates in fact all the turmoil and passionate suggestions of the world, and in their stead creates an order that expresses equilibrium, repose and peace.[seven]

In practice [edit]

Religious core [edit]

In practice, the core of normative organized religion in Islam is consistently aniconic. Spaces such as the mosque and objects like the Quran are devoid of figurative images. Other spheres of religion, for instance mysticism, popular piety, or individual devotion exhibit significant variability in this regard. Aniconism in secular contexts is even more than variable and in that location are many examples of figural representation in secular art throughout history. Generally speaking, aniconism in Islamic societies is restricted in modern times to specific religious contexts. In the past, it was enforced only in some times and places.[8]

By [edit]

The representation of living beings in Islamic art is not just a modern miracle and examples are found from the earliest periods of Islamic history. Frescos and reliefs of humans and animals adorned palaces of the Umayyad era, equally on the famous Mshatta Facade now in Berlin.[9] [10] The 'Abbasid Palaces at Samarra also contained figurative imagery. Ceramics, metalware, and objects in ivory, rock crystal, and other media also bore figural imagery in the medieval era.[11] Figurative miniatures in books occur later in most Islamic countries but somewhat less in Standard arabic-speaking areas. The human figure is central to the Western farsi miniature and other traditions such equally the Ottoman miniature and Mughal painting.[12] [xiii] The Persian miniature tradition began when Persian courts were dominated past Sunnis, but continued after the Shia Safavid dynasty took power. The Safavid ruler Shah Tahmasp I of Persia began his reign equally a keen patron and apprentice creative person himself, simply turned confronting painting and other forbidden activities subsequently a religious midlife crunch.[14]

The Pisa Griffin, probably created in the 11th century in Al-Andalus, is the largest Islamic figurative sculpture to survive.

The abstention of idolatry is the chief concern of the restrictions on images, and every bit a outcome, the traditional form for the religious cult image, the complimentary-standing sculpture, is extremely rare, though examples of freestanding human sculpture do occur in Umayyad Syrian arab republic and in Seljuk Iran.[15] The Pisa Griffin, of a mythical animal and designed to spout h2o for a fountain, is the largest example, at 3 feet tall in bronze, and probably only survives considering it was taken as booty by the city of Pisa in the Middle Ages.[sixteen] Similar the famous lions supporting a fountain in the Alhambra, it probably came from Al-Andalus. The griffin and lions cannot hands be regarded every bit potential idols, given their submissive position (and the lack of religions worshipping lions or griffins), and the same is true of small decorative figures in relief on objects in metalwork, or figures painted on Islamic pottery, both of which are relatively common.[17] In particular hunting scenes of humans and animals were popular, and presumably regarded as clearly having no religious part. The figures in miniatures were, until the belatedly 16th century, ever numerous in each image, pocket-size (typically merely an inch or 2 high), and showing the central figures at roughly the same size as the attendants and servants who are commonly also shown, thus deflecting potential accusations of idolatry. The books illustrated were most often the classics of Persian poetry and historical chronicles.

The hadith show some concessions for context, equally with the dolls, and condemn most strongly the makers rather than the owners of images.[18] A long tradition of prefaces to muraqqas sought to justify the creation of images without getting involved in discussions of the specific texts, using arguments such equally comparing God to an artist.[xix]

Miniature painting was generally patronized by the court circle and is a individual form of art; the owner chooses whom to show a book or muraqqa (album). Only wall-paintings with large figures were found in early Islam, and in Safavid and later Persia, especially from the 17th century, simply were always rare in the Arabic-speaking globe. Such paintings are likewise mainly found in private palaces; examples in public buildings are rare though not unknown, in Iran there are fifty-fifty some in mosques.

Eschewing figural representation, decoration in Islamic sacred architecture relies chiefly on arabesque and geometrical patterns.

Early examples of non-figural representation in Islamic sacred architecture are found in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus and the Dome of the Rock. The murals of the Dome of the Stone use crowns and jewels to symbolize earthly rulership and "otherworldly" plants as an invocation of the Quranic clarification of heaven.[20] Similarly, the murals in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, which draw an idyllic cityscape are as well meant to be an evocation of paradise without figural representation.[xx]

The event of aniconism has posed problems in the modern earth, especially every bit technologies similar television receiver developed in the 20th century. For many years, Wahhabi clerics opposed the establishment of a television service in Kingdom of saudi arabia, as they believed it immoral to produce images of humans.[21] The introduction of television in 1965 offended some Saudis, and one of Male monarch Faisal'southward nephews, Prince Khalid ibn Musa'id ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz,[22] was killed in a police force shootout in August 1965 later he led an assault on one of the new tv set stations.[23]

Nowadays [edit]

Depending on which segment of Islamic societies are referred to, the awarding of aniconism is characterized by noteworthy differences.[24] Factors are the epoch considered, the country, the religious orientation, the political intent, the popular beliefs, the private benefit or the dichotomy between reality and discourse.

Today, the concept of an aniconic Islam coexists with a daily life for Muslims awash with images. TV stations and newspapers (which do present even so and moving representations of living beings) have an exceptional impact on public opinion, sometimes, as in the instance of Al Jazeera, with a global attain, beyond the Arabic speaking and Muslim audience. Portraits of secular and religious leaders are omnipresent on banknotes[25] [26] and coins, in streets and offices (e.thousand. presidents like Nasser and Mubarak, Arafat, al-Assad or Hezbollah's Nasrallah and Ayatollah Khomeini). Anthropomorphic statues in public places are to be constitute in most Muslim countries (Saddam Hussein's are infamous[27]), as well as art schools grooming sculptors and painters. In the Egyptian countryside, it is fashionable to celebrate and advertise the returning of pilgrims from Mecca on the walls of their houses.

The Taliban movement in Afghanistan banned photography and destroyed non-Muslim artifacts, especially carvings and statues such as the Buddhas of Bamiyan, generally tolerated by other Muslims, on the grounds that the artifacts are idolatrous or shirk. Yet, sometimes those who profess aniconism volition practice figurative representation (cf. portraits of Talibans from the Kandahar photographic studios during their imposed ban on photography[28]).

For Shia communities, portraits of the major figures of Shiite history are important elements of religious devotion. In Islamic republic of iran, portraits of Muhammad and of Ali, printed on pieces of material or woven into carpets, are called temsal ("likenesses") and can be bought effectually shrines and in the streets, to be hung in homes or carried with oneself.[29] In Islamic republic of pakistan, India and Bangladesh portraits of Ali tin exist institute on notoriously ornate trucks,[thirty] buses and rickshaws.[31] Reverse to the Sunni tradition, a photographic flick of the deceased tin can be placed on the Shiite tombs.[32] [33] A curiosity in Iran is an Orientalist photography supposed to represent Muhammad as a young boy.[34] The K Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Iraq has given a fatwā declaring the depiction of Muhammad, the prophets and other holy characters, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect.[35]

Circumvention methods [edit]

Medieval Muslim artists found various ways to represent especially sensitive figures such as Muhammad. He is sometimes shown with a peppery halo hiding his face, head, or whole body, and from about 1500 is often shown with a veiled face up.[36] Members of his immediate family and other prophets may exist treated in the same style. At the material level, prophets in manuscripts can have their face covered by a veil or all humans accept a stroke drawn over their neck, symbolizing the severing of the soul, and clarifying the fact that it is not something alive and imbued with a soul that is depicted: a purposeful flaw to make what is depicted incommunicable to live in reality (every bit only impossible in reality is still oftentimes frowned upon or banned, such every bit representations of comic book characters or unicorns, although exceptions do be). Few portraits were attempted, and the ability to create recognizable portraits was rare in Islamic art until the Mughal tradition began in the tardily 15th century, although in both Mughal India and Ottoman Turkey portraits of the ruler then became very popular in court circles.[37]

Islamic calligraphy has also displayed figurative themes. Examples of this are  anthropomorphic and zoomorphic calligrams.[38] Islamic calligraphy forms evolved, particularly in the Ottoman period, to fulfill a function like to figurative fine art.[39] When on newspaper, Islamic calligraphy is often seen with elaborate frames of Ottoman illumination.[39] Examples of Islamic calligraphy using this technique include the proper noun of Muhammad, the Hilya (a tablet that embodies the description of Muhammad's physical appearance), multiple names of God in Islam, and the tughra (a calligraphic version of the name of an Ottoman sultan).[40] [41]

Causes [edit]

Hadith and exegesis examples [edit]

During its early days, aniconism in Islam was intended as a measure against idolatry, particularly against the statues worshipped by pagans. All hadith presented in this section are Sunni, non Shia.

Narrated Aisha:
The wife of the Prophet purchased a cushion with pictures of animals on it for the Prophet to sit on and recline on. The Prophet disapproved of the making of such pictures, proverb the makers would exist punished on the 24-hour interval of Resurrection when God would ask them to bring their creations to life. The Hadith likewise reports that the Prophet said that the angels would non enter a house where there are pictures.

Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin:
Upon the Prophet'due south arrival from a military expedition, a curtain roofing Aisha'due south store-room was raised by the blowing wind, uncovering her dolls. Among them, the Prophet saw a horse with ii wings made of rags and asked his wife what was on the horse. Aisha responded that it was ii wings. He asked: A horse with 2 wings? Aisha then asked if the Prophet had non heard that Solomon had horses with wings. The Hadith reports that the Prophet laughed heartily where his tooth teeth were seen.

—Abu Dawood, Sunan Abu Dawood [43],
Reference (English Book) Book 42, Hadith 4914
Reference (Standard arabic Book) Volume 43, Hadith 160

Narrated Ali ibn Abu Talib:
Safinah AbuAbdurRahman, Ali ibn Abu Talib, and Fatimah invited the Prophet to eat with them. Upon the Prophet's arrival, he turned away after seeing figural curtains hanging at the end of the house. Ali followed the Prophet to ask what had turned him back. The Prophet stated that it is unfitting for him or any Prophet to enter a home decorated [with figural imagery].

—Abu Dawood, Sunan Abu Dawood [44],
Reference (English language Volume) Book 27, Hadith 3746
Reference (Arabic Book) Volume 28, Hadith 20

Narrated 'Aisha:
Upon the arrival of the Prophet from a journey, he saw and tore a mantle with pictures his wife had placed over the door of a chamber. The Prophet disapproved of the making of such pictures, saying those who try to make the like of Allah's creations will receive the severest punishment on the Day of Resurrection.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari [45],
Reference (English Book) Vol. 7, Book 72, Hadith 838
Reference (Arabic Volume) Book 77, Hadith 6019

To show the superiority of the monotheist faith, Muhammad smashed the idols at the Kaaba. He besides removed paintings that were blasphemous to Islam, while protecting others (the images of Mary and Jesus) inside the edifice.[46] The hadith below emphasizes that aniconism depends not only on what, merely also on how things are depicted.

Narrated Ibn Abbas:
The Prophet refused to enter the Ka'ba with idols in information technology and ordered they be removed. Pictures of Abraham and Ishmael holding arrows of divination were carried out and the Prophet stated, "May Allah ruin the infidels for the false portrayal of the acts of Abraham and Ishmael. The Hadith reports that the Prophet said "Allahu Akbar" inside all directions of the Ka'ba and left without prayer therein.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari [47],
Reference (English language Book) Vol. 5, Book 59, Hadith 584
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 64, Hadith 4333

Muslim b. Subaih reported being in a house with Masriuq which had portrayals of Mary. Masriuq had heard Abdullah b, Mas'ud stating that the Prophet had said the most grievously tormented people on the Twenty-four hour period of Resurrection would exist the painters of pictures. After this message was read before Nasr b. 'Ali al-Jahdhami and other narrators, the terminal one being Ibn Sa'id b Abl at Hasan, one person asked for a religious verdict for i like himself who paints pictures. Ibn 'Abbas narrated to the person the Prophet'due south sayings in which all painters who make pictures would exist punished in the burn down of Hell and the soul volition be breathed in every pic prepared by him. Only pictures of paintings of trees and lifeless things should be allowed.

Although pagans in Muhammad's times as well worshiped trees and stones, Muhammad opposed only images of animated beings — humans and animals —, as reported past the hadith. Later, geometrical decoration became a sophisticated art form in Islam.

Narrated Said bin Abu Al-Hasan:
Said bin Abu Al-Hasan narrates a conversation between a panicked human who makes his living past making pictures with Ibn 'Abbas. Ibn 'Abbas relays the message heard from the Prophet that whoever makes a picture volition exist endlessly punished by Allah until he is able to put life into it - though he alleged that would never be possible. The Hadith reports Ibn 'Abbas farther advised the panicked human to brand pictures of trees and any other inanimate objects.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari [49],
Reference (English Book) Vol. 3, Book 34, Hadith 428
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 34, Hadith 172

A'isha reported: The Prophet's wife describes owning a mantle with bird portraits. The Prophet asked for the curtain to exist changed, for when he entered the room it brought to him pleasures of worldly life. Aisha describes also having worn sheets with silk badges, which the Prophet did not control to exist torn.

—Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim [50],
Reference (English Book) Book 24, Hadith 5255
Reference (Standard arabic Volume) Book 38, Hadith 5643

Aisha describes the Prophet vehement a drape with portraits on information technology as before long as he saw information technology. The Hadith reports that the Prophet said the about grievous torment from the Hand of Allah on the Day of Resurrection would be for those who imitate (Allah) in the act of His creation. The torn pieces were made into cushions.

—Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim [51],
Reference (English language Book) Book 24, Hadith 5261
Reference (Arabic Volume) Book 38, Hadith 5650

Muhammad also warned his followers of dying amongst people that congenital places of worship at graves and placed pictures in it (i.east. Christians).

Narrated 'Aisha:
When the Prophet became ill, amongst his wives there was talk of a church in Ethiopia with descriptions of its beauty and pictures it contained. The Hadith reports the Prophet proverb the creators are the worst creatures in the sight of Allah for they are the people who, upon the death of a pious man amongst them, make a place of worship at his grave and create pictures in information technology.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari [52],
Reference (English language Book) Vol. 2, Book 23, Hadith 425
Reference (Standard arabic Book) Book 23, Hadith 425

Muhammad fabricated information technology very clear that angels do not like pictures.

Narrated Abu Talha:
The Prophet said that the angels do not enter houses where at that place are pictures. The sub-narrator Busr describes having visited Zaid who became ill, then witnessing a curtain hung at his door with a picture on it that he had spoken nearly two days prior to becoming ill.

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari [53],
Reference (English Book) Vol. 7, Volume 72, Hadith 841
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 77, Hadith 6023

Narrated Salim'southward father:
Upon Gabriel'southward delay to visit the Prophet, he stated that they do not enter a place in which there is a picture or a canis familiaris

—Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari [54],
Reference (English Book) Vol. vii, Book 72, Hadith 843
Reference (Arabic Book) Volume 77, Hadith 6026

See as well [edit]

  • Aniconism in Christianity
  • Aniconism in Judaism
  • Taghut
  • Censorship past religion
  • Censorship in Islamic societies
  • Devastation of early Islamic heritage sites in Kingdom of saudi arabia
  • Destruction of cultural heritage past ISIL
  • Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
  • Yazid II, an Umayyad caliph who issued an iconoclastic edict in 721 CE
  • Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam#Epitome veneration

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ a b Esposito, John L. (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 14–xv.
  2. ^ a b "Figural Representation in Islamic Art". The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
  3. ^ Wolfram Drews (2011). "Jewish or Islamic Influence? The Iconoclastic Controversy Dispute". Cultural Transfers in Dispute. Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab Globe since the Centre Ages. Germany: Campus Verlag. p. 42.
  4. ^ Wolfram Drews (2011). "Jewish or Islamic Influence? The Iconoclastic Controversy Dispute". Cultural Transfers in Dispute. Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab Earth since the Centre Ages. Frg: Campus Verlag. pp. 55–60.
  5. ^ Esposito, John L. (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know near Islam. Oxford University Printing. pp. 14–15. ISBN9780199794133.
  6. ^ Quran 5:87–92, 21:51–52
  7. ^ Titus Burckhardt (1 October 1987). Mirror of the intellect: essays on traditional scientific discipline & sacred art. SUNY Press. p. 223. ISBN978-0-88706-684-9 . Retrieved 12 December 2011.
  8. ^ Gruber, Christiane J., 1976-. The Praiseworthy 1 : the Prophet Muhammad in Islamic texts and images. Bloomington, Indiana, United states. ISBN 978-0-253-02526-v. OCLC 1083783078.
  9. ^ Allen, Terry, "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art", Palm Tree BooksArchived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Auto
  10. ^ Educational Site: Archaeological Sites: Qusayr `Amra Archived 2016-08-26 at the Wayback Machine
  11. ^ Hoffman, Eva R. (2008-03-22). "Between Due east and West: The Wall Paintings of Samarra and the Structure of Abbasid Princely Civilization". Muqarnas Online. 25 (1): 107–132. doi:10.1163/22118993_02501005. ISSN 0732-2992.
  12. ^ Reza Abbasi Museum Archived September 27, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
  13. ^ "Portraits of the Sultans," Topkapi Palace Museum Archived Nov 20, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  14. ^ Dickson, Martin (1958). Sháh Tahmásb and the Úzbeks (the duel for Khurásán with ʻUbayd Khán; 930-946/1524-1540). Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University. p. 190.
  15. ^ Canby, Sheila R, Deniz Beyazit, Martina Rugiadi, A. C. S Peacock, and Northward.Y.) Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York. Courtroom and Cosmos: The Bang-up Age of the Seljuqs, 2016, p. 40-47
  16. ^ Mack, p. 3 Archived June 10, 2016, at the Wayback Automobile
  17. ^ Canby, Sheila R, Deniz Beyazit, Martina Rugiadi, A. C. South Peacock, and N.Y.) Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York. Courtroom and Cosmos: The Great Historic period of the Seljuqs, 2016, p. 121
  18. ^ The epitome fence : figural representation in Islam and across the world. Gruber, Christiane J., 1976-. London. ISBN 978-1-909942-34-9. OCLC 1061820255.
  19. ^ Roxburgh, David J. Prefacing the Epitome: The Writing of Art History in Sixteenth-Century Iran. Studies and Sources in Islamic Art and Architecture, five. 9. Leiden ; Brill, 2001.
  20. ^ a b George, Alain. Paradise or Empire?: On a Paradox of Umayyad Fine art. Power, Patronage, and Memory in Early Islam (2018). Oxford University Press.
  21. ^ Boyd, Douglas A. (Winter 1970–71). "Saudi Arabian Telly". Periodical of Broadcasting. 15 (1).
  22. ^ R. Hrair Dekmejian (1995). Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab World. Syracuse University Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-8156-2635-0. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
  23. ^ "Saudi Time Flop?". Frontline PBS.
  24. ^ Run across 'Sura' and 'Taswir' in Encyclopaedia of Islam
  25. ^ Petroleum-related banknotes: Kingdom of saudi arabia: Oil Refinery Archived July xx, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
  26. ^ Petroleum-related banknotes: Islamic republic of iran: Abadan Refinery, Iahanshahi-Amouzegar Archived July 20, 2011, at the Wayback Motorcar
  27. ^ David Zucchino "U.Southward. armed forces, not Iraqis, behind toppling of statue" Honolulu Advertiser, July 5, 2004 Archived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
  28. ^ Jon Lee Anderson, Thomas Dworzak, Taliban, London (UK), Trolley, 2003, ISBN 0-9542648-5-1.
  29. ^ Dabashi, Hamid (2011). Shi'ism - A Religion of Protestation. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Printing of Harvard University Press. pp. 29–30.
  30. ^ Saudi Aramco World : Masterpieces to Go: The Trucks of Pakistan Archived October viii, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
  31. ^ The Rickshaw Arts of Bangladesh Archived Oct 21, 2009, at the Wayback Car
  32. ^ Flick of Golestan e Shohoda cemetery Esfahan -Esfahan, Iran Archived October 18, 2012, at the Wayback Car
  33. ^ Mashad Martyrs Cemetery at Best Islamic republic of iran Travel.com Archived Apr 7, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
  34. ^ Photography by Lehnert & Landrock, titled "Mohamed", Tunis, c. 1906. Nicole Canet, Lehnert & Landrock. Photographies orientatlistes 1905-1930. (Paris: Galerie Au Bonheur du Jour, 2004): cover, p. 9. dead link Archived May xviii, 2006, at the Wayback Machine . Historical context described in (in French) Patricia Briel, letemps.ch, 22 February 2006. Ces étranges portraits de Mahomet jeune [ dead link ]
  35. ^ Grand Ayatollah Uzma Sistani, Fiqh & Beliefs: Istifa answers, personal website. (accessed 17 February 2006) (in Arabic) [ permanent dead link ] , "Archived re-create". Archived from the original on 2009-05-23. Retrieved 2009-04-29 . {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived re-create every bit title (link)
  36. ^ Gruber, Christiane. "BETWEEN LOGOS ( KALIMA ) AND LIGHT ( NŪR ): REPRESENTATIONS OF THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD IN ISLAMIC PAINTING." Muqarnas, vol. 26, 2009, pp. 229–262. JSTOR, world wide web.jstor.org/stable/27811142. Accessed 12 November. 2020.
  37. ^ Fetvacı, Emine. Picturing History at the Ottoman Court / Emine Fetvacı. Indiana University Printing, 2014. p.254
  38. ^ Robinson, Francis. Journal of Islamic Studies, vol. 3, no. 1, 1992, pp. 100–103. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26196535. Accessed 13 November. 2020.
  39. ^ a b FETVACI, EMINE. "THE ALBUM OF AHMED I." Ars Orientalis, vol. 42, 2012, pp. 127–138. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43489770. Accessed 13 Nov. 2020
  40. ^ The Metropolitan Museum of Fine art. "Hilya (Votive Tablet)." Accessed December 9, 2020. https://world wide web.metmuseum.org/fine art/collection/search/447313.
  41. ^ Grabar, Oleg. "An Exhibition of Loftier Ottoman Fine art." Muqarnas, vol. vi, 1989, pp. 1–11. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1602275. Accessed 13 Nov. 2020.
  42. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 3:34:318, 7:62:110
  43. ^ Sunan Abu Dawood, 41:4914
  44. ^ Sunan Abu Dawood, 27:3746
  45. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:72:838
  46. ^ Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq'south "Sirat Rasul Allah". Oxford University Press. p. 552. ISBN978-0-nineteen-636033-1 . Retrieved 2011-12-08 .
  47. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:59:584
  48. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24:5272
  49. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 3:34:428
  50. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24:5255
  51. ^ Sahih Muslim, 24:5261
  52. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 2:23:425
  53. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:72:841
  54. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:72:843

References [edit]

General [edit]

  • Jack Goody, Representations and Contradictions: Ambivalence Towards Images, Theatre, Fiction, Relics and Sexuality, London, Blackwell Publishers, 1997. ISBN 0-631-20526-8.

Islam [edit]

  • Oleg Grabar, "Postscriptum", The Germination of Islamic Art, Yale University, 1987 (p209). ISBN 0-300-03969-seven
  • Terry Allen, "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art", 5 Essays on Islamic Art, Occidental (CA), Solipsist, 1988. ISBN 0-944940-00-5 [1]
  • Gilbert Beaugé & Jean-François Clément, L'image dans le monde arabe [The prototype in the Arab world], Paris, CNRS Éditions, 1995, ISBN 2-271-05305-6 (in French)
  • Rudi Paret, Das islamische Bilderverbot und dice Schia [The Islamic prohibition of images and the Shi'a], Erwin Gräf (ed.), Festschrift Werner Caskel, Leiden, 1968, 224-32. (in German)

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